Mineral Resource Governance and the Role of Geneva

Extraction of mineral resources has risen markedly in recent decades and will continue to grow to serve the needs of a growing population. The UN Environment Assembly calls for more responsible governance of the extractive sector based on consensus-based principles, policy options and best practices that are compatible with the Sustainable Development Goals.

RELEVANT NEWS

Digital Knowledge Hub on Environmental Aspects of Minerals and Metals

Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 | IEA | 16 July 2026

Powering the Future: Critical Energy Transition Minerals and the Workforce of Tomorrow | ILO | 16 July 2026

Moving beyond commodity dependence | UNCTAD | 14 July 2026

From waste streams to Critical Raw Material sources | European Commission Joint Research Centre | 10 July 2026

Sand: Wanted dead and alive. Use it wisely, warns the UN | UNEP | 12 May 2026

IEA Ministers elevate Agency’s Critical Minerals Security Programme as key international platform for mineral security | IEA | 19 February 2026

UNEP and IRMA announce collaboration to advance responsible mining practices | UNEP | 11 February 2026

2026 Critical Minerals Ministerial Fact Sheet | U.S. Department of State | 4 February 2026

Stocktake Report on Sustainability Standards and Initiatives (SSI) for Minerals and Metals | UNEP and IGF | 27 November 2025

Mineral Resource Governance and the Environment

Minerals and metals play a central role in the global economy, as they provide the raw materials we need for industrial processes and daily use. Despite enormous efforts to decouple economies from resource use, the extraction of mineral resources has increased markedly in recent decades and, over the last decade, at a faster rate than economic growth. This trend is forecasted to steadily increase in the future, as we struggle to meet the mineral resource needs of a growing global population that is expected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, 9.8 billion by 2050 and 11.2 billion by the end of the century.

The topic of sustainable management of minerals has never been so high on the global political environment agenda and the reason is that minerals are essential for the future. The energy transition, infrastructure and digitalization processes, among others, represent greener solutions. However, unsustainable extraction, manufacturing, use and disposal of resources is having important detrimental impacts on people and the planet. With an expected 500 per cent increase in the demand for minerals (from 2018 production levels), environmental challenges are going to be even more acute.

Global Governance of Mineral Resources

UN Environment Assembly

Unsustainable extraction, manufacturing, use and disposal of resources is having important detrimental impacts on people and the planet. Various UNEA resolutions have recognized the « need for enhanced action to support the environmental sustainability management of minerals and metals » along their full lifecycle and mobilized important discussions and action:

At the 4^th UN Environment Assembly, held in 2019, members adopted Resolution 4/19. « Mineral resource governance (UNEP/EA.4/Res.19) requested UNEP Executive Director to collect information on sustainable practices, identify knowledge gaps and options for implementation strategies, and undertake an overview of existing assessments of different governance initiatives and approaches relating to sustainable management of metal and mineral resources, to be reported on at UNEA-5.
At the 5^th UN Environment Assembly concluded on 2 March 2022 in Nairobi, delegates discussed this important issue and adopted a resolution on the Environmental aspects of minerals and metals management (UNEP/EA.5/Res.12). Building on the UNEA-4 resolution on the matter, Member States stressed the « need for enhanced action to support the environmental sustainability management of minerals and metals » along their full lifecycle. The resolution requested the convening of intergovernmental regional consultations, followed by a global intergovernmental meeting, to develop proposals to enhance the environmental sustainability of minerals and metals along their full life cycle, to be held in Geneva, where many organizations are actively working on issues related to resources governance.
At the 6^th UN Environment Assembly, held in 2024, Resolution 6/5. « Environmental aspects of minerals and metals » (UNEP/EA.6/Res.5) was adopted. Building on the efforts of Resolution 5/12, it requests UNEP Executive Director to « establish a digital knowledge hub to compile, among other things, information on existing good practices relevant to the environmental aspects of minerals and metals […] », as well as to develop capacity-building opportunities relating to environmental aspects of minerals and metals and support enhanced cooperation among Member States to strengthen the policy, technological, technical and scientific elements of the management of environmental aspects of minerals and metals.
The 7th session of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA-7) took place from 8 to 12 December 2025. In preparation for UNEA-7, UNEP Executive Director, Inger Andersen, released the first part of her report on UNEA-7 “Priorities for advancing sustainable solutions for a resilient planet” (UNEP/EA.7/2), suggesting possible areas for UNEA-7 resolutions for the consideration of Member States, including critical energy and digital transition minerals.
At (UNEA-7), Resolution 7/3 « Strengthening International Cooperation on the Environmentally Sound Management of Minerals and Metals (UNEP/EA.7/Res.3) » was adopted.

UNEA-4 Resolution | Mineral Resource Governance

UNEA-5 Resolution | Environmental aspects of minerals and metals management

UNEA-6 Resolution | Environmental aspects of minerals and metals

UNEA-7 Resolution | Strengthening International Cooperation on the ESM of Minerals and Metals

Digital Knowledge Hub on Environmental Aspects of Minerals and Metals

As mandated by UNEA resolution 6/5, UNEP launched the Digital Knowledge Hub on Environmental Aspects of Minerals and Metals on 27 November 2025. The Hub is hosted by the Green Growth Knowledge Partnership (GGKP) and aims to provide access to knowledge products, tools and guidelines; to act as a gateway to facilitate access to curated knowledge and datasets; as well as to provide an online platform for capacity-building and online communities of practice.

The Hub also includes Communities of Practice (COPs), collaborative spaces designed to foster knowledge sharing, networking, and peer-to-peer learning among stakeholders involved in the environmental aspects of minerals and metals management. These COPs enable participants to exchange ideas, share best practices,and engage in thematic discussions on topics such as environmental assessments, life cycle, SCP and circularity, mine closure, policy or regulatory aspects, or sustainable mining practices. → Register now by creating your profile, join the Minerals group discussions group.

Launch Event Highlights

The @GENetwork is at the launch event of @UNEP/ @IGFMining Stocktake Report on Standards and Initiatives (SSI) for #Minerals and #Metals, also launching the Digital Knowledge Hub on environmental aspects of minerals & metals as mandated by #UNEA.

📺https://t.co/9QTYRQ9r3W pic.twitter.com/yf8WJe94E6
— GENeva Environment Network (@GENetwork) November 27, 2025

Geneva Dialogues on Mineral and Metal Resources

The Geneva Dialogues on Mineral and Metal Resources aim at outreaching and creating synergies among actors in Geneva and beyond, highlighting efforts made by intergovernmental organizations and governments, businesses, the scientific community, civil society and individuals in the hope of informing and creating stronger synergies and coordinated actions. The dialogues will also look at what the different stakeholders have achieved at all levels, present the latest research and governance options.

The dialogues are organized by the Geneva Environment Network in partnership with Switzerland, Senegal, UNEP/GRID-Geneva, UNECE, the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), the Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development (IGF), The Forum on Trade, Environment, & the SDGs (TESS) and the World Resources Forum.

The first series of the dialogues kicked off in February 2025 → Rewatch the launch event on 13 February 2025.

Geneva Dialogues on Mineral and Metal Resources

Global Intergovernmental Meeting on Minerals and Metals

The Global Intergovernmental Meeting on Minerals and Metals took place on 7 and 8 September 2023 in Geneva, back-to-back with the 2023 edition of the World Resources Forum.

The global meeting highlighted the key findings of the regional consultations and provided an opportunity to gather additional feedback to potentially inform a co-chairs’ summary of outcomes. Participants were also be able to provide written input to the consultations prior to and after the consultations.

Background Document for the Global Intergovernmental Meeting

Briefing on the Implementation of UNEA Resolution 5/12 on Environmental Aspects of Minerals and Metals Management

A Geneva briefing, held a few months ahead of the first intergovernmental regional consultation, provided updates on the implementation plan for the implementation of UNEA Resolution 5/12 on Environmental Aspects of Minerals and Metals Management. and stakeholders’ mobilization in the process.

This session, convened with the co-chairs intergovernmental regional consultations on minerals and metals management in the framework of the Geneva Environment Network, took place on 28 February 2023.

Watch and read briefing summary

Briefing on the Global Intergovernmental Meeting on Minerals and Metals

A second Geneva briefing on the global intergovernmental meeting, organized in collaboration with the co-chairs of this process within the framework of the Geneva Environment Network, provided updates on preparations and the way forward. The event was held two weeks ahead of the intergovernmental meeting, on Wednesday 23 August 2023.

Rewatch the session and Access Resources

Challenges and Opportunities of Mineral Resource Governance

The growing demand for metals and minerals presents notable opportunities for resource-rich developing countries to harness their extractive wealth to advance economic development and human well-being. As such, the minerals and metals industry also has the potential to successfully support countries in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. In many cases, however, extractive activities in these countries has not not translated into broad-based economic, human and social development. Furthermore, current resource management practices often lead to environmental degradation. Therefore, planning for a post-mining economy that considers social development and community satisfaction with quality of life must remain an essential goal of improved governance in the sector.

In the report Mineral Resource Governance in the 21st Century: Gearing Extractive Industries Towards Sustainable Development (2020), the International Resource Panel and the UN Environment Programme assesse governance gaps in the extractive sector and provides suggestions on how to improve the economic performance of the extractive sector while ensuring that it complies with the highest social and environmental standards at national and international levels. The report provides guidance on how the extractive sector can establish a modern governance structure which addresses resource security and efficiency—an area of particular interest to developed nations—and satisfies the demand for continuous structural transformation, economic development and diversification in resource-exporting, developing countries.

IRP/UNEP Report: Mineral Resource Governance in the 21st Century

Environmental and Social Impact of Mining

Unsustainable production and consumption systems powered by relentless extraction of natural resources have been driving the inter-linked planetary crises of climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution. According the World Resources Forum, resource extraction and processing are responsible for over 80% of biodiversity loss and water stress, and for 50% of carbon emissions globally. And global material resource use is expected to more than double from 2015 to 2050.

Following is a list of impacts relating to the extractive sector provided by the IRP/UNEP report.

Freshwater competition and contamination

Water contamination can have a huge impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Increased silt within watercourses can disrupt visibility and the migration patterns of aquatic species. In extreme cases, long-term changes in the water table can fundamentally change the soil conditions in an area, leading to different habitat types becoming established. For example, water contamination in important fishing or aquaculture areas can have particularly negative social and economic impacts.

Solid waste production

Depending on the specific ore grades and degree of overburden, the ratio of waste to metal mined is large. Mineral extraction is the largest global waste producer, particularly from copper, zinc, bauxite and nickel mining. The waste generated is usually stored as tailings that, as earlier noted, are a major hazard.

Air pollution

All mining stages can affect air quality since fine particles and dust are often produced and dispersed by the wind. This can lead to a range of environmental impacts and adverse human health effects, particularly if the dust contains heavy metals. Air pollutants also pose a risk to ecosystems, and this in turn can impact human health and welfare through contaminated food, water and a loss of other ecosystem services. Air pollution can also impact biodiversity, through both direct and indirect impacts.

Soil erosion and contamination

Land conversion due to mining and its infrastructure destroys or contaminates soil cover in many cases, which constitutes a long-term or even total loss of agricultural potential. Mining processes, such as crushing and milling, significantly reduce soil particle sizes, thereby aggravating erosion by rainfall, runoff water or wind. This can have significant impact on the immediate and downstream ecosystems and human health.

Impacts on important areas for biodiversity

Impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems can be particularly high where mining activities are located in protected areas and other areas of high biodiversity value and sensitivity. The countries with the greatest number of mining operations within areas of biodiversity importance are the United States, China, Australia, Brazil and Canada. Alliance for Zero Extinction sites represent the last refuge for Critically Endangered and Endangered species based on the IUCN Red List of Threatened species. Of the 588 sites globally identified, 60 contain one or more mines in 29 countries. This could lead to potentially large impacts on the conservation status of particular areas and species.

Climate change

While mining affects the environment, climate change also has impacts on the mining sector. Extractive industries contribute to climate change mostly due to environmental destruction of potential carbon sinks due to deforestation and degradation of ecosystems. Mining is one of the most intensive users of heavy fuel oil. Climate change polices will impact demand and supply of mineral resources. Climate change will provoke adjustments in the value of mineral resources and, more importantly, climate mitigation instruments may profoundly alter institutions of mineral resource governance in unpredictable ways.

Recommended National and International Measures

Understanding the necessity for broader actions, the IRP/UNEP report contains a list of key recommendations for implementation at both national and international levels. The International Resource Panel strongly believes that effective work at national level with broad and inclusive involvement of all stakeholders including “host and home” country governments, the international community, mining companies and civil society organizations should lead to the adoption of a strategic development plan. The plan must contain targeted actions for the Sustainable Development Goals and define performance standards.

In order to facilitate its implementation, the International Resource Panel suggests including mining laws and regulations in the plan, which enshrine the principles of consultation, transparency and reporting as well as recognize and promote the rights of local populations. Failure to govern mineral resources is primarily political and behavioural in nature, related to governance and human failures to create institutional arrangements that support coordinated actions locally, nationally and internationally. Read more about key recommendations below.

Decoupling Economic Growth from Environmental and Social Impacts

Mining activities must be conducted with due care for the associated environmental and social impacts if it is to deliver sustainable development. The World Summit on Sustainable Development outlines the thinking that should guide the mining sector.

Protecting Human Rights

Resources extraction generate conflict that leads to human rights violations. Many governments in the global south may be unwilling to protect human rights, especially when exploitation of natural resources benefits the elites. In addition, government unwillingness may be the result of undue influence by unscrupulous mining companies. Indigenous Peoples are particularly impacted. → Read more

The frequently severe and enduring environmental impacts of mining highlight the need to carefully balance such activities with stewardship of other valuable natural resources and the environment including ecosystems and biodiversity, and the rights of local people and communities. Decision-making in the extractive sector is shaped by a complex array of governance frameworks and initiatives operating along highly globalized mineral value chains. → Read more

Ensuring Responsible Business Practices

At the local level, extractive activities are expected to provide jobs and local development, while at the national level there are expectations that revenues will fund development projects. However, this is not usually the case. While this is leading to more responsible business practices, there is a need for greater integration of these practices in companies’ strategies. The transparency and global nature of extractive value chain means that all gaps can be addressed.

Balancing Security of Supply Concerns versus Sustainable Development Aspirations

Although much of the extractive industry is located in OECD countries and emerging economies, extractive industries are also important to the economies of many developing countries. However, output from developing countries is largely used in the more developed countries as inputs to key industries. Security of supply may override concerns for good governance and, in many cases, minerals become the key enabler of poor governance. Read more →

Introducing the Sustainable Development License to Operate

The IRP/UNEP report suggests to replace the concept of “social license to operate”— which was used by mining companies to build public trust and prevent social conflict—with a new governance model, which the authors call the “Sustainable Development License to Operate”. It is a more holistic, integrated and inclusive approach, through which companies can achieve positive economic, social and environmental results. It is designed to look at all the extractive industry as a whole and identify opportunities for contributing to sustainable development.

The proposals include reaching an international consensus regarding the normative content and structure of the Sustainable Development Licence to Operate informed by expert inputs from a “Highlevel Panel on Mining for Sustainable Development”. It further considers the creation of an International Mineral Agency to share relevant information and data. The report also investigates artisanal and small-scale mining and development minerals sectors which are an important source of livelihoods for marginalized populations, often overlooked by policymakers. Read more →

Coal industry, South Africa. Photo: Jassen Todorov © Getty images

Critical Minerals and Resource Governance: The Transition to Sustainable Energy

In the face of the climate crisis, the transition towards a low-carbon future through clean and renewable energy places critical minerals, such as cobalt, copper, lithium, nickel, and rare earths, at the forefront not only of the global environmental agenda but as well as that of mineral resource governance.

The energy supply sector is the largest contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. Around 80% of global energy and 66% of electrical generation are supplied from fossil fuels, contributing to approximately 60% of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions responsible for climate change. A transition to cleaner forms of energy has already begun in many countries, but despite the recent fast rate of technological innovation and cost reduction, renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies must still compete with highly subsidized carbon-intensive energy technologies.

Total demand for selected minerals by end use in the Net Zero Scenario, 2021-2050, IEA, Paris. Data as of 19 January 2024. License: CC BY 4.0

Due to the crucial role that they play in the production of clean energy technologies, they have become increasingly in demand, as annual trade in energy-related critical minerals has already increased from US$ 53 billion to US$ 378 billion over the past 20 years. The IEA has also projected that consumption of these minerals could increase by at least sixfold by 2050 if we were to achieve net-zero by mid-century.

With this growing need, however, comes increasing pressure on supply chains, particularly in developing countries that hold large reserves of these minerals. African countries, for example, have about 25 percent of global reserves, including 19 percent of those needed for EVs. Many developing countries are already playing a vital role in supplying world markets, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, from where 68 percent of cobalt imports originate, Chile, a significant lithium exporter, and Indonesia, which accounts for 48 percent of nickel exports (UNCTAD 2023).

IGF Critical Minerals Map

Transition Minerals Tracker

Intergenerational Equity and Critical Minerals Governance

Critical minerals are essential for the energy transition as are intergenerational equity in resource management and the engagement of youth. In this light, the Resource Management Young Member Group (RMYMG) of the UNECE Expert Group on Resource Management published « Critical Minerals for the Sustainable Energy Transition: A Guidebook to Support Intergenerational Action”, which was launched during the UNECE Resource Management Week 2024. Emphasizing the urgency of integrating sustainable practices in the mining and management of critical minerals, this guidebook serves as a crucial tool to aid policymakers, industry leaders, researchers, and civil society to navigate the complex landscape of mineral resources crucial for the global shift toward renewable energy technologies.

Critical Minerals for the Sustainable Energy Transition: A Guidebook to Support Intergenerational Action

Working Group on Transforming the Extractive Industries for Sustainable Development

In 2022, the UN Secretary-General created a Working Group on UN Framework on Just Transitions for Critical Energy Transition Minerals for a more collaborative and impactful service delivery offered in this space. An outcome of five Regional Roundtables and a Global Roundtable on Extractive Industries held in 2020 and 2021, (see the Policy Brief), the Working Group aims to

Coordinate extractives-related work across the UN and beyond through joint work, planning and collaboration.
Serve as an information and knowledge hub to scale up and replicate best practices and build synergies with existing initiatives.
Provide policy advice and technical assistance to stakeholders in the extractives sector.
Assist in integrating work on the extractive industries into other UN-wide initiatives such as the Financing for Development Initiative (FfDI).

As the success of the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources will heavily depend on the availability and accessibility of critical energy transition minerals, the Secretary-General’s Working Group and its partners, in consultation with member states, experts, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders is developing the UN Framework on Just Transitions for Critical Energy Transition Minerals.

The Working Group in June 2025 has also prepared the « UN Guidance for Action on Critical Energy Transition Minerals« , which aims to promote collective action and assist UN Member States in implementing the seven Guiding Principles and five Actionable Recommendations proposed by the UN Secretary-General’s Panel on Critical Energy Transition Minerals. With the Panel’s main goal to develop global, common, and voluntary principles to ensure that the international energy transition is both fair and sustainable, the document specifically discusses how critical minerals—such as copper, cobalt, nickel, lithium, graphite, and rare earth elements, which are essential for electric vehicles, battery storage, solar panels, and wind turbines—can be responsibly managed throughout their lifecycle.

More on the UN Framework on Just Transitions for CETIM

UN Secretary-General’s Panel on Critical Energy Transition Minerals

The UN Secretary-General launched on 26 April 2024 an initiative focusing on ensuring fairness, sustainability, and respect for human rights throughout the entire process of sourcing and using critical minerals needed for the clean energy transition.

The UN Secretary-General’s Panel on Critical Energy Transition Minerals builds on existing standards and initiatives, such as the Working Group on Transforming the Extractive Industries for Sustainable Development and its flagship initiative ‘Harnessing Critical Energy Transition Minerals for Sustainable Development’ to strengthen and consolidate existing efforts. Co-chaired by H.E. Ambassador Nozipho Joyce Mxakato-Diseko of South Africa and Ditte Juul Jørgensen, Director-General for Energy of the European Commission, the Panel brings together governments, intergovernmental and international organizations, industry and civil society, to develop a set of common and voluntary principles to build trust, guide the transition and accelerate the race to renewables. The Panel is supported by a technical secretariat led by the UN Secretary-General’s Climate Action Team, UNEP and UNCTAD, and includes various UN system entities. → Read the press release, the UN Secretary-General’s remarks on the launch of the Panel, and UN News story.

As a follow-up to the report, the United Nations Task Force on Critical Energy Transition Minerals was launched on 10 December 2025 to coordinate UN activities across all principles and actionable recommendations. The Task Force will work through five technical clusters, each supported by a voluntary network of experts from governments, international organizations and non-State actors:

Value addition, benefit sharing and diversification
Traceability, transparency, accountability framework and global market
Global Mining Legacy Fund
Artisanal and small-scale mining stakeholder capacity-building
Material efficiency and circularity

The Task Force will also mobilize a Critical Energy Transition Minerals support mechanism to provide country-level support for the effective implementation of the Panel’s principles and recommendations. The Task Force is chaired by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), and draws on the expertise and capacity across the entire UN system.

Resourcing the Energy Transition | Guiding Principles

The Panel on Critical Energy Transition Minerals has published the report — Resourcing the energy transition: principles to guide critical energy transition minerals towards equity and justice — that makes recommendations on critical minerals, identifying ways to ground the energy transition in justice and equity, that spurs sustainable development, respects people, protects the environment and powers prosperity in resource-rich developing countries.

Human rights must be at the core of all mineral value chains.
The integrity of the planet, its environment and biodiversity must be safeguarded.
Justice and equity must underpin mineral value chains.
Development must be fostered through benefit sharing, value addition and economic diversification.
Investments, finance and trade must be responsible and fair.
Transparency, accountability and anti-corruption measures are necessary to ensure good governance.
Multilateral and international cooperation must underpin global action and promote peace and security.

The Guiding Principles put forward recommendations for fairness, transparency, investment, sustainability and human rights, not just where minerals are mined, but along the entire minerals value chain, from refining and manufacturing to transport and end-of-use recycling.

Read the Guiding Principles

Transition Towards Sustainable Energy

In the face of environmental, social, economic, geopolitical, trade, and partnership challenges and opportunities, harnessing the potential of critical energy transition minerals will require putting the necessary social and environmental safeguards in place, while ensuring inclusive spaces for engagement, including Indigenous Peoples and local communities. Learn how actors in International Geneva are taking action toward a transition to sustainable energy for a cleaner future.

Transition to Sustainable Energy and the Role of Geneva

Deep Sea Mining and Mineral Resource Governance

Deep sea mining is the process of retrieving valuable mineral deposits from the deep seabed – the ocean below 200m. While remaining widely unknown, parts of the ocean floor are known to be plentiful of nickel, copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, gold and other rare-earth metals and minerals, which are resources of great interest in the green transition, particularly with the rapid development and production of electronic cars, renewable energy, batteries and other zero-carbon technologies.

However, this industry could against all expectations lead to a catastrophic impact on climate and biodiversity. Deep-sea mining is currently undergoing exploration phases, and its effects on deep-sea ecosystems are yet to be fully understood. However, the available data has prompted scientists to caution that biodiversity loss, particularly, is expected to occur with such practices and is likely to be irreversible. Studies indicate that the potential negative impacts of deep-sea mining on marine biodiversity, ecosystems and their carbon sequestration potential are significant.

In a landmark decision, the 30th session of the  International Seabed Authority Assembly established 1 November as the International Day of the Deep Seabed as proposed by the sponsoring countries, Fiji, Jamaica, Malta and Singapore. The annual observance will promote greater understanding of the deep seabed and its resources while fostering international cooperation in its sustainable management.

Seabed Resources Governance

UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was opened for signature at Montego Bay, Jamaica, on 10 December 1982. It entered into force 12 years later, on 16 November 1994. A subsequent Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the Convention was adopted on 28 July 1994 and entered into force on 28 July 1996. This Agreement and Part XI of the Convention are to be interpreted and applied together as a single instrument.

The Convention establishes a comprehensive legal framework to regulate all ocean space, its uses and resources. It contains, among other things, provisions relating to the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the continental shelf, the exclusive economic zone and the high seas. It also provides for the protection and preservation of the marine environment, for marine scientific research and for the development and transfer of marine technology. One of the most important parts of the Convention concerns the exploration for and exploitation of the resources of the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (the Area). The Convention declares the Area and its resources to be “the common heritage of mankind”. The International Seabed Authority, established by the Convention, administers the resources of the Area.

International Seabed Authority

Established under UNCLOS in 1994, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) is the organization through which States Parties to UNCLOS organize and control all mineral-resources-related activities in the Area for the benefit of humankind as a whole. In so doing, ISA has the mandate to ensure the effective protection of the marine environment from harmful effects that may arise from deep-seabed-related activities.

The « Two-Year Rule » and the Plan of Work for Exploitation

In June 2021, in an effort to expedite the development of the regulations and begin commercial exploitation of deep sea metal in minerals, the island country of Nauru submitted to the ISA its intention to apply for approval of a plan of work for exploitation by triggering the “two-year rule ». This rule stipulates that after such a request, the ISA Council “shall complete the adoption of the relevant rules, regulations, and procedures (RRPs) within two years from the submission. »

The two-year deadline triggered by Nauru expired on 9 July 2023, making the 28th Session of ISA discussion one of the most anticipated deliberations of the history of organization for future of deep-sea mining. Following 11 Council and 4 Assembly days of confrontational debates and difficult negotiations, key moments and decisions of the Council included:

The Council ‘intention, regarding the timeline following the expiration of the two-year period, to continue the elaboration of RRPs, with a view to their adoption during the 30th ISA session in 2025.
The inability of Member States at the General Assembly to put on the agenda the opening of a debate on the very principle of exploiting the ocean floor, as called for by France, Chile, and Costa Rica, as well as the archipelagos of Vanuatu and Palau. The objective of holding a debate was to obtain a position from the ISA in favor of a moratorium by the time of the next United Nations Ocean Conference, jointly organized by France and Costa Rica in Nice in June 2025.
Inclusion of an item on “the Authority’s general policy on the protection and preservation of the marine environment” on the provisional agenda for 2024.
More than 30 mining industry representatives were part of the official state delegations.
Canada, Ireland, Brazil, Finland and Portugal have taken positions against deep-sea mining in international waters, adding up to 21 the number of countries inquiring for a moratorium, a precautionary pause or a ban.

Momentum for Moratorium

In opposition to the acceleration of the calendar on a particularly delicate issue, numerous voices started to speak out against deep-sea mining. Various stakeholders requested a moratorium on DSM until a number of conditions around environmental harm, good governance and social license can be met. Others called for the complete ban of the practice.

At IUCN 2021 World Conservation Congress, IUCN Member States, civil society, and Indigenous organizations overwhelmingly voted in support of a moratorium on deep seabed mining to protect life in the ocean.
A Moratorium Alliance for resistance to deep-sea mining, was launched by Palau at the UN Ocean Conference in Lisbon. Fiji and Samoa were the first countries to join the Alliance, followed by the Federated States of Micronesia.
As of August 2025, 38 countries have taken positions against deep-sea mining in international waters, with a moratorium position, a precautionary pause, or a ban.
On 28 June 2023, the Swiss Federal Council adopted its position, supporting a moratorium on commercial exploitation of the Area until there is more scientific knowledge of its impact and protection of the marine environment can be guaranteed.
Stakeholders such as WWF International have developed and highlighted resources on the widespread concern in the scientific community about deep seabed mining and the irreversible impact it would have on delicately balanced deep ocean ecosystems.
Personalities, such as the Ocean Advocate, IUCN Patron of Nature, and UNCTAD Special Adviser for the Blue Economy, Dona Bertarelli, have taken strong positions against deep-sea mining.

Deep-Sea Mining Governance and the Role of Geneva

Key Actors for Resource Governance

At the global level, the International Resource Panel (IRP), based in Paris, and the World Resources Forum (WRF), based in Winterthur, lead the work on issues of mineral resources governance.

International Resource Panel

The IRP was launched by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in 2007 to build and share the knowledge needed to improve our use of resources worldwide. The panel provides advice and connections between policymakers, industry and the community on ways to improve global and local resource management. It includes scientists and governments from both developed and developing regions, civil society, industrial and international organizations.

World Resources Forum

The WRF is an international non-profit organisation that aims to mobilize action to promote sustainability and fairness in the global use of natural resources. Through various projects, mainly in the global South, its work focuses on resource extraction, circularity and recovery. WRF hosts a yearly multi-stakeholder conference to build knowledge and support for collaborative action on sustainable resources management. It acts as an interactive platform for sharing and discussing the latest research, policies and practices in the field. Several editions were held in Geneva. The last conference, World Resources Forum 2025, took place in Geneva from 2 to 3 September 2025, under the theme « Shaping Resource Strategies for a Sustainable Future ».

The Role of Geneva

Various actors in Geneva are engaged in ensuring enhanced action to support the environmental sustainability management of minerals and metals along their full lifecycle. As Geneva is at the center of numerous debates and negotiations in the fields of science, health, human rights, development, trade and green finance, employment, peacebuilding and security, disaster risk reduction, humanitarian response, nature conservation, chemicals and pollution, as well as new technologies and innovation, the dialogues can be a conducive platform to explore interlinkages between these topics and mineral and metal resources governance.

Organizations are listed in alphabetical order.

Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions | BRS Conventions

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal aims to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous waste. Since 2023, it addresses e-waste issues. It categorizes e-waste as hazardous or non-hazardous waste depending on the presence of toxic materials such as mercury, lead or brominated flame retardants. As e-waste may also contain precious metals such as gold, copper and nickel and rare materials of strategic value such as indium and palladium, the Basel Convention works to ensure their recovery, recycling and use as valuable source of secondary raw materials. At the fourteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention in 2019, the Parties decided to establish a new partnership as a follow-up to Partnership for Action on Computing Equipment, launching Partnership for Action on Challenges relating to E-waste (PACE II) which addresses on mobile phones, computing equipment, TV screens including LEDs, LCD, CRTs screens, audio and video equipment and refrigerators, cooling and heating equipment.

Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters under UNECE | Aarhus Convention

The Aarhus Convention on access to information, public participation and access to justice in environmental matters, hosted by UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), is also devoting a part of its work on the protection of environmental defenders. The Aarhus Convention grants the public broad and concrete rights of participation in decision-making and imposes obligations regarding access to information on parties and public authorities.

Forum on Trade, Environment & the SDGs | TESS

The Forum on Trade, Environment & the SDGs (TESS) works on fostering inclusive international cooperation on trade and trade policies to enable a circular economy that serves sustainable development priorities and environmental goals. Besides producing publications on the role of minerals to the development of a green economy, TESS organizes rountables and experts gatherings on the topic, notably the Trade in Minerals Critical for Climate Transitions and the Green Economy: Developing Country Perspectives and Pathways for International Cooperation Roundtable held on 12 July 2024 identified issues at the nexus of trade in critical minerals, climate action, and sustainable development, and to explore possible approaches and pathways for enhanced international cooperation.

Geneva Graduate Institute | IHEID

The Geneva Graduate Institute addresses resource governance through research and projects carried out by its multiple research centers. These include assessing resources from environmental, sustainability, anthropological, governance, conflict, and peace perspectives. The Geneva Graduate Institute also hosts important conferences as the May 2023 one on Deep Seabed Mining and the International Seabed Authority.

Geneva Platform for Resilient Value Chains | GPRVC

The Geneva Platform for Resilient Value Chains is a non-partisan, not-for-profit platform of excellence located within the Centre for Trade and Economic Integration at the Geneva Graduate Institute. Anchored in International Geneva’s spirit and in its trade, sustainability, mediation, and human rights expertise, the Platform focuses on supporting resilient and inclusive value chains that are vital to the energy transition and climate change: Solar PV, Wind, Critical Minerals, Batteries, Electric Vehicles, and Grids.

Green Growth Knowledge Partnership | GGKP

In its resolution on Mineral Resource Governance (UNEP/EA.4/L.19), the United Nations Environment Assembly asked United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to collect information on sustainable practices, identify knowledge gaps and options for implementation strategies, and undertake an overview of existing assessments of different governance initiatives and approaches relating to sustainable management of metal and mineral resources, including emerging issues linked to sustainable management of sand resources and of mine tailings.

Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development | IGF

The Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development (IGF) is a voluntary initiative that provides opportunities for national governments with an interest in mining to work collectively to advance the priorities identified in the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation and—more recently—the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Agenda 2030.

The IGF 2024 is convened for the 20th IGF Annual General Meeting from 18 to 20 November at the Palais des Nations in Geneva, hosted by UN Trade and Development. This year’s theme is Redefining Mining: Balancing the Need for Minerals with Protecting People and the Planet. in Geneva and hosted by UNCTAD.

International Institute for Sustainable Development | IISD

The mining sector is one of the areas of focus for the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). Since 2015, the institute has hosted the Secretariat to the Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development (IGF) with more than 75 member nations committed to leveraging mining for sustainable development to ensure that negative impacts are limited and financial benefits are shared (see above). IISD has also been deeply involved in the development of a Model Mining Development Agreement (MMDA) with the International Bar Association’s (IBA) Mining Law Committee.

International Labour Organization | ILO

The only tripartite U.N. agency, since 1919 the International Labour Organization (ILO) brings together governments, employers and workers of 187 member States, to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent work for all women and men.

ILO recognizes the need for further action and its strategy seeks in to further intensify dissemination of Convention 169, including by promoting dialogue among the key stakeholders, sharing experience of good practices and training. ILO also recognizes that indigenous and tribal women face discrimination on multiple grounds, both outside and within their communities. ILO will seek to develop interventions to address the specific barriers and challenges faced by them.

International Organization for Standardization | ISO

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is one of the largest organisation developing standards and is committed to improving resource efficiency and promote the development of a circular economy based on the optimal use of resources. ISO provides a series of voluntary standards for the mining sector. The ISO Technical Committee on mining provides expert insights for the standardization of various practices related to extractive activities, including for reducing the environmental impacts associated with the cessation of mining activities.

International Trade Center | ITC

The International Trade Center connects micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) to value chains, including minerals and metals ones, and helps them succeed is central to ITC’s mission. It works with all stakeholders in areas that can improve income and employment and have the greatest potential for developmental change, and develops strategies and builds partnerships along those value chains.

International Telecommunication Union | ITU

As part of its commitment to a sustainable future, ITU promotes the creation of a circular economy for electronics and greening digital transformation, and participates in various activities addressing the urgent global issue of E-waste.

International Union for Nature Conservation | IUCN

IUCN launched the initiative, Natural Resource Governance Framework (NRGF), created for the purpose of providing a robust, inclusive, and credible approach to assessing and strengthening natural resource governance, at multiple levels and in diverse contexts. The overarching goal of NRGF is to: set standards and guidance for decision-makers at all levels to make better and more just decisions on the use of natural resources and the distribution of nature’s benefits, following good governance principles, such that improved governance will enhance the contributions of ecosystems and biodiversity to equity and sustainability.

At the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Marseille (September 2021), IUCN Members adopted Resolution 122 to protect deep-ocean ecosystems and biodiversity through a moratorium on deep-sea mining unless and until a number of conditions are met.

Minamata Convention on Mercury

The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury, addressing the ubiquitous metal throughout its life cycle from its mining to its management as waste. From a ban on new mercury mines, the phase-out of existing ones, the phase-out and phase-down of mercury use in a number of products and processes, control measures on emissions to air and on releases to land and water, the Convention also addresses the regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining.

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights | OHCHR

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) highlights the concerns over human rights violations related to mining, including deep seabed mining. Highlighting the false promise that mineral exploitation can lead to improved development and enjoyment of human rights, OHCHR warns about the dangers of human rights being trumped as States often allow businesses to foist costs on individuals not party to the transaction. OHCHR also reminds businesses have a responsibility to respect internationally protected human rights in accordance with the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, as businesses should identify and assess human rights risks throughout the value chain and life cycle of critical minerals, take effective measures to prevent and mitigate such risks, and track whether those measures are effective. Businesses should also communicate information sufficient to those potentially affected, in particular Indigenous Peoples, and ensure access to effective remedies to people who suffer adverse effects.

Special Procedures of the UN Human Rights Council

The Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council, the largest body of independent experts in the UN Human Rights system, is the general name of the Council’s independent fact-finding and monitoring mechanisms that address either specific country situations or thematic issues in all parts of the world. Various work on minerals have been employed by various mandate holders:

The UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights in the context of climate change, Elisa Morgera, in her report to the 80th session of the UN General Assembly, entitled A human rights-based approach to the energy transition (A/80/188), presented a synthesis of evidence of the positive and negative human rights impacts of renewable energy development and its reliance on minerals, clarifying States’ obligations and the responsibilities of other actors to support a human rights-based approach to the energy transition.
The former UN Special Rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous Peoples mandate holder, José Francisco Calí Tzay, in his report to the Human Rights Council, Green financing – a just transition to protect the rights of Indigenous Peoples (A/HRC/54/31), highlights the impact of green finance on Indigenous Peoples and addresses the social and environmental safeguards needed to protect their rights. This is critically important as 54 per cent of energy transition mineral and metals projects are located on or nearby the lands of Indigenous Peoples.
A number of Special Procedures mandate holders have issued a statement welcoming the emphasis placed by the UN Secretary General’s Panel on Critical Energy Transition Minerals on ensuring human rights are at the core of all mineral value chains. They underscored that international human rights norms must inform the application of the seven voluntary Principles included in the report. While the Principles refer to international human rights frameworks “agreed upon by all countries,” international human rights instruments which are not ratified by all countries are nonetheless applicable in the context of critical minerals to States that are party to those instruments.

UN Environment Management Group | UN EMG

The UN EMG is a system-wide coordination body on environment and human settlements. It identifies issues on the international environmental agenda that warrant cooperation and finds ways of engaging its collective capacity in coherent management responses to those issues. Since 2020, UN EMG has hosted nexus dialogues on mineral resources and mineral resources governance to build on UNEA resolution and gather UN actors and beyond to collaborate towards implementation.

UN Economic Commission for Europe | UNECE

UNECE helps strengthen sustainable resource management in Europe with the United Nations Framework Classification for Resources. Over the course of 2022, a series of high-level international conferences have provided opportunities to engage with stakeholders across government, industry and civil society to encourage sustainable resource management. Among key tools is the United Nations Framework Classification for Resources (UNFC), developed at UNECE, which is the first widely accepted and internationally-harmonized system for classifying, managing and reporting natural resources.

In addition, UNECE member States decided to extend UNFC by creating the UN Resource Management System (UNRMS) — a dynamic resource management system for sustainable development that can aid stakeholders in the incorporation of a circular economy wherever possible.

UNECE Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents

The UNECE Industrial Accidents Convention is a legal instrument that helps countries strengthen their tailings safety and governance. Many guidance and materials and tools have been developed under the framework of the Convention and they are available for use by all UN Member States: TMF safety guidelines and good practices to support the practical implementation of these safety guidelines; the TMF Safety Methodology that countries could apply on the ground; policy documents such as the Roadmap and a Decision on strengthening mine tailing safety; and an online toolkit and training on tailing safety.

UN Environment Programme | UNEP

As the global authority that sets the environmental agenda, the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) provides important work on issues of mineral resources governance. The UN Environment Assembly has been addressing the issue at its various assemblies, adopting resolutions to further international cooperation for sustainable resources management.

In Geneva, the UNEP Resources and Market Branch is striving to decouple economic development from resource use and environmental degradation, while reaping the benefits of this transition to ensure inclusiveness and poverty eradication. Geneva also hosts the UNEP Europe Office which develops projects in the pan-European region, including on green economy and resource efficiency.

UNEP/GRID-Geneva

UNEP/GRID-Geneva is leading the Global Marine Sand Watch, a platform to help countries and stakeholders monitor dredging activities in near real-time towards the goal of capacity building, development of guidelines and best practices for sand extraction. GRID-Geneva was mandated by UNEA to « strengthen scientific, technical and policy knowledge with regard to sand, to support global policies and action regarding its environmentally sound extraction and use » (UNEP/EA.5/Res.12).

UN Trade and Development | UNCTAD

UNCTAD‘s work on trade of critical minerals addresses current and projected trends in critical minerals’ demand and supply as well as social, economic, and environmental impacts of the exploitation of these minerals and offer policy recommendations to facilitate sustainable exploitation, enhanced trade diversification, and domestic resource mobilization for structural transformation to achieve the SDGs. UNCTAD has been active on the topic since 2009 with the Natural Resources Information Exchange (NRIE) initiative, which aimed to create a repository of digital information, focusing on geoscientific historical data. The initiative is currently being revamped to strengthen the capacity of countries to manage their wealth of data.

World Business Council for Sustainable Development | WBCSD

The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) brings together transformational organizations to form a global community that shifts the systems they work within towards a better future. One of WBCSD’s pathways Products & Materials undertakes a full lifecycle approach to help companies optimize resource use to meet society’s needs while allowing the systems that provide resources to regenerate.

World Intellectual Property Organization | WIPO

WIPO is the global forum for intellectual property (IP) services, policy, information and cooperation. WIPO published the report Global Challenges for Innovation in Mining Industries exploring relations between mining innovation and other macro-factors such as commodity prices, transport innovation and environmental policy.

World Economic Forum | WEF

The World Economic Forum (WEF) hosts various initiatives promoting the sustainable use of minerals and collaboration among actors. The Securing Minerals for the Energy Transition (SMET) initiative is a global multistakeholder platform for collaborative coordinated action in the space of critical minerals for the energy transition to facilitate policy dialogue, support investment mobilization, accelerate innovation
WEF also provides strategic analysis, trends and research on the matter, including « Nature Positive: Role of the Mining and Metals Sector« , « Securing Minerals for the Energy Transition« , and “Perspectives on Responsible Natural Resource Management in Conflict-affected Countries”.

World Trade Organization | WTO

As the global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations, the WTO is concerned with the trade policies of mineral resources and materials, including the rights and obligations of WTO members in relation to its trade. The WTO also provides analyses and research on the matter, including on the trade in natural resources (including mining) in the World Trade Report 2010, and on energy-related critical minerals.

World Wildlife Fund for Nature | WWF

As the world’s leading conservation organization, WWF works in nearly 100 countries to tackle the most pressing issues at the intersection of nature, people, and climate. As resource extraction is often the cause of species decline and biodiversity loss, WWF works actively to stop harming extractive activities. In particular, WWF is campaigning against deep seabed mining, a lucrative activity which could cause irreversible damage on delicately balanced deep ocean ecosystems. → Read more

WWF Switzerland

WWF Switzerland seeks to commit stakeholders from the watch and jewellery industry to finding innovative solutions to protect the environment, in particular forests, fresh water and wildlife that are currently threatened in several points of the sector’s supply chain. WWF also provided an assessment of the impact of gold mining and the role of Switzerland as a global gold hub.

Business and Private Sector

Minerals and metals underpin economies, provide crucial raw materials for industrial activities, and are inputs to almost every sector of the global economy. Overall, 9.6 billion tonnes of metal ores were extracted in 2020 alone, equivalent to 10% of global material extraction, supplying activities across almost all sectors of the economy (WEF 2025).

Switzerland is one of the world’s most important commodities trading hubs, with a global market share of 60% for metals and with over 900 commodities trading companies in the country. Major players in the global minerals and metals industry are situated in Geneva, making it an important hub to ensure that the sector is engaged in ensuring enhanced action to support the environmental sustainability management of minerals and metals along their full lifecycle, reduce their impacts on nature, and even help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

Organizations working on this include the Swiss Better Gold Association, which improves working and living conditions in artisanal and small-scale gold mining communities (ASGM), and facilitates the creation of responsible supply chains from ASGM operations to the Swiss market. The association partners with the Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO) in the Swiss Better Gold Initiative for Artisanal Small-Scale Mining (ASM).

GEN Events

Sand and Sustainability: An Essential Resource for Nature and Development | Report Launch

UNEP/GRID-Geneva & GEN | 13 May 2026

Navigating Global Sustainability Standards in the Mining Sector | Geneva Dialogues on Mineral and Metal Resources | UNECE Resource Management Week Side Event

Geneva Environment Network and UNECE | 30 April 2026

The International Seabed Authority: Governing the Common Heritage of Humankind, Protecting the Marine Environment, and Regulating Deep-Sea Mining

ISA and Geneva Environment Network | 4 February 2026

Just Transition and Human Rights | Reducing Dependence on New Mineral Resource Extraction | HRC59 Side Event

Special Procedures of the UN Human Rights Council, Earthjustice, Geneva Environment Network, Geneva Climate Change Consultation Group | 1 July 2025

Role of Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions in Sustainable Circular Models for Minerals and Metals | Geneva Dialogues on Mineral and Metal Resources | 2025 BRS COPs Side Event

Geneva Environment Network | 5 May 2025

Spotlight on Circularity | Geneva Dialogues on Mineral and Metal Resources | UNECE Resource Management Week Side Event

Geneva Environment Network, UNEP and UNECE | 26 March 2025

The Threats of Deep-Sea Mining | Geneva Rights and Environment Talks | Geneva Minerals & Resources

Geneva Human Rights, Biodiversity and Land Task Force | 13 March 2025

Launch of the Geneva Dialogues on Mineral and Metal Resources

Geneva Environment Network, Switzerland, Senegal, UNEP Global Resource Information Database Geneva, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development, Forum on Trade, Environment & the SDGs, World Resources Forum | 13 February 2025